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From 1979 to 2023, the takaful structure has been adopted in many jurisdictions, making the documenting of its early days of establishment relatively difficult and somewhat unreliable. This is unlike conventional insurance, where the history and legislation are well documented and archived in various research (Hellwege, 2016; Marano and Siri, 2017). The purpose of this paper is to provide a chronology for the establishment and development of takaful via the takaful establishment in each jurisdiction, documenting its first takaful operator and first takaful regulation.

This paper has used a qualitative method in the form of reviewing literature and available data such as journals, books and official resources. The data is thoroughly analysed in order to build the chronology for takaful. It adopted an exploratory research design, which is deemed suitable in situations where few works of literature have examined the subject (Neuman, 2014). The paper explores the establishment and non-establishment of takaful in 57 countries. The paper categorises the countries into seven regions starting with the GCC, Levant, Asia, Central Asia, Africa, Europe and Others.

The takaful chronology presented in this paper shows that takaful operations exist in 47 jurisdictions, starting from Sudan and the UAE in 1979, with the most recent adopters being Morocco and Iran in December 2021. It is found that 22 jurisdictions do not have takaful regulations, and the Takaful Act 1984, issued in Malaysia, is considered the first takaful regulation that sets the basis for other regulations that follow.

The paper contributes to the literature by providing a comprehensive chronology of takaful, especially as the few existing timelines have been found to be incomplete and consist of contradictory information.

The purpose of this study is to develop and thereafter validate a Sharīʿah-based FinTech Money Creation Free [SFMCF] model for Islamic banking.

The study has adopted a qualitative research methodology, using three approaches, namely, a survey of the literature to identify the research gap and the variables needed for developing the model, content analysis to construct the variables into a model and semi-structured interview with 10 experts in banking, Sharīʿah and Financial Technology (FinTech) to validate the SFMCF model.

The major findings of the study lie in developing the SFMCF model for Islamic banking, empirical validation of the model’s viability and acceptability and the implications for the main stakeholders of Islamic banks.

The SFMCF model is specific to Islamic banking and its validation is based on the views of 10 experts.

The SFMCF would necessitate changes to the central bank regulatory framework, convince Islamic banks to forego their powers and advantages of creating money and enhance their abilities to fully adopt Sharīʿah-compliant FinTech.

The proposed model if implemented would change positively the perception of the society particularly the stakeholders of Islamic banks and restore their trust and confidence about the direction of the institution toward achieving the Sharīʿah objectives.

The novelty of this work lies in developing and validating the viability and acceptability of the SFMCF model for Islamic banking.